• Temporary air quality issues can have negative health impacts (Varanasi, 2024)
• PM2.5 is fine particulate matter with a width of less than two and a half microns. Previous studies find correlation to developing hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart attacks, and strokes (Varanasi, 2024)
• 8.1 million deaths in 2021 - “poor air quality has become the second leading risk factor for death” (Wright & Pant, 2024)
• 90% of air pollution deaths in 2021 were from noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), including inflammation of lungs and rest of body, oxidative stress, damage organs, stroke, heart disease  (Wright & Pant, 2024)
• 93% of people worldwide live in areas with ozone levels higher than WHO guidelines and as of 2021, ambient ozone (ground ozone) associated with 489,000 deaths and 8.7 million healthy years of life lost worldwide (Wright & Pant, 2024)‍
• Short-term TRAP - respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous system - exacerbate pre-existing disease (Fuller et al., 2023)
• Long-term TRAP - harm from pre-birth to old age - respiratory issues, cardiovascular disease, cancer risk, overall mortality (Fuller et al., 2023)
• Air pollution leads to immune damage and diseases, it is an inflammatory response and triggers oxidative stress.  Luckily, Exercise is anti-inflammatory and enhances immune system (Jin et al., 2024)
• Air pollution causes ~7 million premature deaths worldwide every year (Jin et al., 2024)
• PM2.5 - Asthma in children, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, ischemic heart disease events, stroke, hypertension, lung cancer (Forastiere et al., 2024)
• NO2 - asthma in children and adults, acute lower respiratory infections in children (Forastiere et al., 2024)
• Life expectancy, fertility, cognitive ability, educational attainment all impacted by air quality which impacts labour force (Schulte & Hudson, 2023)
• AAP (ambient air pollution) may be risk factor for COVID-19 hospitalisation (Dales et al., 2024)
• Oxidative stress and inflammation associated with cardiac and pulmonary morbidity and mortality with inc risk respiratory infections (Dales et al., 2024)
• Lower respiratory infection deaths are decreasing across most regions (State of Global Air | 2024)
• “Exposure to air pollution is associated with impacts on every major organ system in humans” (State of Global Air | 2024)
• Short term: asthma symptoms, spikes in hospitalizations for heart and lung issues (State of Global Air | 2024)
• Long term: illness and early death from lung and heart disease, diabetes, adverse birth outcomes, tuberculosis, chronic kidney disease, neurodegenerative diseases (State of Global Air | 2024)
• PM2.5 contributed to 7.8 million deaths and 90% of disease burden of air pollution. PM2.5 is largest driver of disease burden of air pollution (State of Global Air | 2024)
• NO2 short term: irritate airways, worsen existing respiratory diseases, more frequent/severe asthma symptoms with more hospitalisation, impair lung development, worsen allergies, increase risk of respiratory infections, children inc risk of developing asthma, loss of healthy years of life. 177,000 health years of life lost for children and adolescents (State of Global Air | 2024)
• NO2 Long term: early cardiovascular death, lung cancer, asthma onset, lower respiratory tract infections (LRIs) in children (State of Global Air | 2024)
• Ozone short term: asthma exacerbation, respiratory problems.  Long-term: COPD development (State of Global Air | 2024)
• NO2 and PM2.5 inc in residential areas leads to older adults losing independence. 40% of participants had a loss of independence in 10 year time frame (Pramanik, 2024)
• Half of the 7 million yearly deaths due to CVDs, and number on the rise (obviously as for 2021 the number is 8.1 million) (World Heart Federation, 2024)
• 50,000 premature deaths due to exposure to wildfire smoke (Gammon, 2024)
• Smoky skies linked to hospital admission spikes and ambulance calls for asthma and CVD issues.  Cardiac arrest risk increases 70% during heavy smoke days (Gammon, 2024)
• Increase long-term risk of adverse mental health outcomes as well as day-to-day disruptions in mood (Udasin, 2024)
• Long-term exposure could impact hormone levels, which could exacerbate menopause side effect symptoms such as sleep disturbances and hot flashes (Camfil USA Air Filters, 2024)
• Fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) is linked to higher overall DNA mutational burden, increased prevalence of TP53 mutations, and shorter telomeres. Aristolochic acid from medicinal herbs leaves a mutational signature in the lung cancer genome (Díaz-Gay et al., 2025)‍
• Air pollution in both cities and rural areas generates fine particulate matter which results in NCDs such as stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic respiratory diseases as well as acute conditions such as pneumonia (WHO, 2025)
• Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), are among the leading causes of death, many are linked to air pollution exposure. The global NCD epidemic claims 41 million lives annually. Addressing air pollution is a key strategy in reducing the burden of NCDs and improving global health (WHO, 2025)
• In 2021, 31% of deaths related to noncommunicable diseases were related to air pollution exposure (Health Effects Institute, 2025)
• Accounting for numerous, simultaneous chemical exposures revealed increased risks to people’s brains, hearts, lungs, kidneys, and hormonal systems from air pollution in a community near Philadelphia (Ferrell, 2025)
• Traditional risk assessment approach found no elevated risks in the same community
• PM2.5 ends up in liver and kidney (Zhang, 2024)
• PM2.5 impacts mitochondrial homeostasis and function in lung, liver, heart, adipose tissue, and blood vessels (Zhang, 2024)
• Counties with high PM2.5 10% more likely to report poor mental health days (European Society of Cardiology, 2024)

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